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November 7, 2008

Social Control

Filed under: Group Techniques — admin @ 11:03 pm

Social Control The means whereby the group secures conformity to the expectations of its group members is termed social control. This may take the form of rewards to group members for meeting group standards. Such rewards may include recognition before the group, election to office, being accorded a certain status, or being given some other tangible recognition such as a perfect-attendance pin. Other rewards are less tangible and may take the form of being accepted by the group, a feeling of response from other group members, a smile, a word, or a pat on the back.

Control may also be in the form of punishments. Censure, ridicule, rejection, destitution, taking away privileges, or actual physical acts against the offender are examples of this type of control.

Every group has its group standards and enforces them by varying degrees of social control. Some groups rely mostly on incentives or rewards for control, others more on fear or punishment. If groups are to be productive, members need to know what the standards of the group are and the means used to enforce those standards – the methods of control. As pointed out, it seems to be important that the methods of control are recognized by group members and uniformly enforced – not rigidly enforced one time and very loosely enforced the next.

It is also important that social controls apply equally to all group members. This creates problems since there is seldom absolute conformity to any social norm. Thus control is brought into play, not so much by deviation from a norm, but by departure from the existing degree of obedience to the norm. The group, or the leader, must always face the problem of when to invoke the control.

Many groups have formal sanctions that they may invoke against their members. These formal controls automatically call into operation many informal sanctions, both social and internalized. For instance, the placing of a group member on the inactive list may formally restrict him from holding office and participating in certain group functions. It may also informally restrict the amount of association that group members may want to have with him. In addition, other members may set up certain sanctions against him in that they may consider him a “poor group member,” one who doesn’t take group responsibilities seriously, a person who is not reliable, etc. These informal sanctions give real force to the formal sanction. Controls are most effective when, for a single departure from the existing standards, not one but many separate controls are brought to bear on the individual. When such a complex system of controls is activated, future violations from the group norms are reduced.

The degree of control and the effectiveness of control are related to the importance the group member attaches to being accepted by the group. The identity or “we” feeling the member feels for the group and the relative importance of this group will help determine the effectiveness of the social controls. If there are easy psychological, social, or physical opportunities for group members to withdraw, controls will not be very effective. (The effectiveness of controls upon any member is directly related to the importance assigned by the member to maintaining his membership and status in the group.)

In many cases deviant behavior from group norms may be understood by recognizing that members in a specific group are also members of many other groups that also have standards or norms. Members may not conform to a given group’s norms because conforming to the norms of some other reference group is more important to them. For instance, winning may be a vitally important standard to a team group, and this team may place many controls on its members to assure maximum effort toward winning. Some members of the team, however, will not conform to this norm if they must employ unfair tactics to win. Winning by unfair tactics many conflict with standards of other more important groups, perhaps the family or church, and the urge to conform to these standards may be much stronger.

In some cases members may feel they cannot get recognition through the accepted channels of behavior. They may flaunt group standards to get recognition of another kind. A committee member may come to the committee meeting without fulfilling his responsibility of gathering data for presentation and thereby make light of the assignment. (At this stage, the other committee members may convert him to living up to the group standards of a good committee member or invoke additional social pressures upon him to motivate him to live up to the group standard.)

What About Your Group?

  1. Are group members involved in determining the means – social controls – to enforce group standards?
  2. Are the group members aware of the degree of deviation from group standards allowed before social controls are brought into play?
  3. Are group standards enforced relatively uniformly over time and on all members?
  4. Are rewards and incentives utilized as means of social control?
  5. Are both formal and informal controls and pressures used to maintain group standards?
  6. Are there various controls that can be brought into play against deviation from important group standards?
  7. Is there a recognition that group members may have group standards of several different groups as their referents in a given group situation?
  8. Are the means of social control reviewed periodically by the group?
  9. Is consideration given to making social controls explicit on specific group standards that the group is having difficulty enforcing?

“We Feeling” or Identity

Filed under: Group Techniques — admin @ 11:02 pm

We Feeling or Identity “We-feeling” or identity in a group implies a certain common bond, a common sympathy, and a definite consciousness of being united in some way. This force is sometimes discussed in terms of group solidarity, morale, or esprit de corps, the individuals feel a common concern a stake in ‘what happens to the other members of the group and the group as a whole. The individual feels he belongs, is a part of, and has a common concern with the group. It may be said that these feelings involve the sort of sympathy and mutual identification for which the word “we” is the natural expression.

This “we-feeling” is often manifested by group members when they speak in terms of “we feel,” “we believe,” “we want,” “we demand,” “we contend,” or speak of “our group,” “our problem,” and “our achievement.” This may be contrasted with other verbalizations such as “they think” or “they do.” Usually the pronouns are used as the basis of distinguishing the group to which the individual belongs from some other group – “in-group” versus “out-group.”

However, inside any given group there is a wide range of the degree of “we-feeling” or identity with the group. With widely different intensity, members may feel that this is my group – “the group whose members I know, whose purposes I share, whose traditions I respect, whose goals I will strive for, and whose prestige I will work to maintain.”

Identity is largely emotional, and hence often difficult to account for on any rational grounds. While it may be based on the ideals, philosophy, or objectives of the group, it may be built equally well around feelings toward certain individuals. It may also involve past experiences with the group or perhaps some symbolic meaning which the group conveys to the individual. Any or all of these factors plus many more may be combined in almost any way to produce the feeling of identity between a member and his group.
It is an important point that a member may identify on one basis but not on another. He may identify to a very great degree with the fundamental purpose of the group, but poorly indeed with the group itself. He might feel completely at home and happy with the members but have no feeling toward the goals and aspirations of the group. The strongest and most enduring feelings of identity appear to be those founded upon a combination of several bases.

People are often identified with several groups. Sometimes either the ends or means of these may be in conflict with each other. For example, a laborer may identify with both his company and his union, even though their interests may clash at times. A business man who identifies with his trade association, his social club, and his church may find that at times his actions in one conflict with the philosophy or ethics of another.

There is a high relationship between identity with a group and participation in that same group and its activities. This is a reciprocal relationship, since greater identification encourages participation and activity within the group is one of the most important sources of identity. Within the group frequent, highly charged interaction – especially under conditions which seem to threaten the group – often leads to exceptionally high identity and solidarity. It has been noted in military organizations especially that esprit de corps reaches its peak under conditions of danger or hazard.

Physical conditions which place group members in proximity to each other encourage interaction and hence the feeling of identity. As there is lack of intimacy and greater physical separation, interaction slows down.

The manner in which the ego of the member is rewarded by the group activity has a great deal to do with his ability to identify. It helps if the group goals coincide with his own. It also helps if he feels he has something to say about the operation of the group and the methods it chooses. All the complexities of human behavior enter into identification as it applies to the individual in a group setting.

As pointed out previously, the more group members identify with the group, the greater pressure there is to conform to group standards. Members will be more willing to compromise to secure total agreement. It also seems true that members having a high sense of identity with the group are more willing to sacrifice and work for group goals.

What About Your Group?

  1. To what degree do the members of your group really identify with the group?
  2. Does the group recognize that members may identify with the group in the following ways:
  3. Identity with basic philosophy and purpose of the group?
  4. Identity through common experiences with other members?
  5. Identity with group activities and accomplishments?
  6. Identity with group leaders and other group members?
  7. Identity with symbols that are representative of the group?
  8. Is our group providing opportunities and help toward identification?
  9. Do members recognize that other group members may identify strongly with other groups?

General Role Definition

Filed under: Group Techniques — admin @ 11:01 pm

General Role Definition The term general role is used in this discussion in the sense of the general expectation of the group member’s or subgroup’s role within the group. In contrast, interaction roles will be used in a subsequent section to discuss specific unit acts within the group process. Some expansion may clarify the usage of the term general role.

What is the expectation of group members as contrasted with those of the group leader? Is it the group expectation that the leader has major responsibility for group activation, direction, decisions, and action? Or is there a general expectation on the part of all group members that each has a responsibility to help perform all the functions? When a person becomes a member of the group, is he given any definition of his role in terms of the responsibilities, obligations, and privileges that go with the membership? When members are elected to office is there a clear definition of the role they are expected to perform in their given position? Does the group know what it expects of its members in general and individual members in particular? On the other hand, do the members or subgroups of members know what is expected of them by the group?

Those organizations which specifically identify the roles of group members are likely to be rated higher in goal achievement than are organizations which do not. If roles are not clearly defined, if there are overlapping roles, or if the defined roles leave responsibility for important functions not specified, there is decreased goal achievement. In addition to decreased goal achievement there are also less favorable attitudes toward the organization and the leadership in the organization. The need for more formal definition increases as the organization becomes larger and contacts are less intimate.

The member’s understanding of his role, his perception of how his role relates to other roles in the process of group productivity, and his feeling of the importance of his role all go to determine his sense of responsibility to the group and motivate him to contribute to group productivity. Definitions of roles that evolve from group discussion and participation overtime, or out of election to the role, appear to lead to more productivity than those resulting from assignment or appointment.

If the role of a member is ill-defined and he cannot see how it relates to other roles or contributes to group achievement, he is less likely to be motivated to productive action. The member may not recognize the functions that need be performed or he may be afraid he is usurping the function of someone else. Group member hostility and frustration often results from an unwarranted suspicion of another group member as a threat to his position or as the occupant of a position that is unattainable to him.

But role definitions, as such, do not guarantee group productivity. It should be obvious that roles have real meaning and orientation only when the objectives and standards of operation of the group are clear and common to all members. A lack of clarity or agreement on the ends and the means to attain those ends usually leads to poor definition of roles and lack of motivation for goal fulfillment.

What About Your Group?

  1. Does your group give attention to the definition of officer, subgroup, and individual member roles?
  2. Is there group involvement in the definition of the various group member roles?
  3. Do all group members understand how their roles fit into the over-all organizational structure and group goal attainment?
  4. Do all group members understand the importance of their roles and how the performance of their roles contributes to group productivity?
  5. Are roles defined by default?
  6. Are group members left on their own to determine the direction and bounds of their responsibilities?
  7. Is there periodic review and evaluation of designated roles?

October 25, 2008

Group Objectives and Individual Motivation

Filed under: Group Objectives — admin @ 3:05 pm

Group Objectives and Individual Motivation Behind what any member says, behind what he considers important, is his system of values and attitudes.

These values and motivations vary from person to person. If people are to work together as a group, there must be a certain unity in interests, objectives, and purposes. When people meet and effectively explore their individual interests and problems, they soon find it necessary to define their goals and objectives. These will give them a common basis upon which they can work as a group.

Individuals with different expectations, abilities, and backgrounds often have difficulty in becoming a smoothly functioning group. People after: join groups with different kinds of expectations as to what the group will do for them. If group members are to enjoy their organization and its functions and gain satisfactions from group participation and accomplishments, they must each feel they have a part in forming its purposes and goals. Each person must feel that the group’s goals are consistent with his own, that the group is his group, and that the important decisions of the group are at least partially his decisions.

The basic properties of group goals and individual goals are not fundamentally different. Group activities, like individual activities, are motivated by needs and directed toward goals. Group goals can guide the behavior of group members and motivate them to perform certain activities rather than others. Thus it is important to recognize that group goals can be a source of real influence upon group members.

When a particular group goal has been established, it is expected that “good” group members will work toward its attainment, even when the goal they preferred was not accepted. Individual group members are influenced in varying degrees and in different ways by the various goals of a group. The magnitude of this influence can vary quantitatively among members and from goal to goal for any particular member.

Research tells us that compatibility of individual goals influences the degree to which group goals become established and the amount of influence they will have over members. When all or most of the members of a group have the same goal in mind, it is almost certain that this goal will become a group goal and the group will make a concerted effort to achieve it.

It is evident that group goals must be closely related to the interests and needs of the individual members. The expression of interests and needs by anyone member is influenced to a considerable degree by the manifestation of interests and needs by fellow members. This mutual expression and identification of interests and needs is the real basis for the formation of a group and for the formulation of its goals and objectives.

Members who most fully accept group goals display most strongly the drives and motivations which help a group achieve its goals. Those who merely acquiesce are less motivated toward group achievement. Those who reject the group goals tend to pursue individual interests and private goals.

In some groups, members have little knowledge or understanding of group goals. Again, if a group goal is not fully accepted by the members it has little power to motivate the individual toward activities which might lead to its fulfillment. Such a situation is inclined to develop a low level of motivation, rather poor coordination of efforts, and a relatively high incidence of self-oriented rather than grcuptask oriented behavior on the part of individual members. Member involvement in the process of goal definition enhances the probability that group goals will be understood, accepted, and internalized by group members.

Regular group members influence new members to accept group goals and perform group functions. How effectively this is done depends largely upon the degree to which they satisfy their own interests and needs by participation in the group’s activities.

Remember, however, that prospective and new members must have the opportunity to learn about and understand the group’s goals. Groups whose members like one another as people, groups that supply personal need satisfactions, and groups with high prestige all exert strong influences upon members to accept their goals.

Many groups have well-defined objectives which give them direction. They have been found to be most productive. Other groups with vague concepts as to why they are organized, what they are attempting to accomplish, or why they are engaged in their activities are less productive. Time spent by group members in effectively defining group goals and objectives can do much to give a group direction and purpose and to increase the quality and efficiency of its achievements.

Group Goals and Objectives

Filed under: Group Objectives — admin @ 3:04 pm

Group Goals and Objectives “Everyone knows why we’re here. Let’s get on with the job.” This is a common enough opening for a meeting. But is it true? Do we really know and agree on what the job is? How will we know we are accomplishing the job? A group unaware of its purposes is a rudderless ship. Cooperatively determined and well-stated goals based on the definite interests and needs of group members will help provide answers to these and many other questions.

According to the analytical framework, all groups have three main areas of interest. They are: (1) the group itself, with its individual members and its internal and external dynamics; (2) the techniques, or means and methods used by the group; and (3) the goals or objectives toward which the group is oriented.

Group goals specify or define its ends; they identify the targets toward which the group activities are aimed. They also provide the framework within which rational decisions can be made about the number and kinds of activities the group should undertake. They should provide criteria against which progress can be measured. When effectively developed and stated they can provide a major basis for common interest, for feelings of identity, for motivation, for group standards, for meaningful participation, and for group member satisfactions.

Our society is replete with groups organized for social action, recreation, self-education, or almost any purpose or combination of purposes. In the midst of all this activity, we should continually ask if important things are getting done. Are these groups really fulfilling the needs of the individual group members, the group as a whole, and the larger society? Failure, in many cases, is not a matter of too few groups, of insufficient members, or lack of effort. More often it is due to failure to analyze important needs in the light of changing conditions, to choose things that are pertinent in terms of the interests and needs of the group or community, and to clearly state realistic objectives that will help meet the needs.

Most groups have trouble motivating members to participate actively and meaningfully. This problem may often revolve around the lack of clear understanding and agreement on what the purposes of the group are; or around a failure to see how all the activities are really contributing to the attainment of the assumed objectives.

We live in a rapidly changing society. Goals that might have been very important last year may not be important today. The interests and needs of group members change rapidly, indicating the necessity for a periodic review and discussion of group goals and objectives. Such a review may lead to the changing of objectives, a reorientation of emphasis, the adding of additional goals, or even to a recognition of the need for the dissolution of the group. It may also lead to a more specific statement of short-run objectives within the more general framework of existing long-term goals. If study reveals that the objectives of the group should continue as before, it should lead to increased group member motivation based on the reaffirmation of the importance of the group and its goals.

Some organizations seem to exist only because they have always existed and because people keep coming to meetings. Many members do not come, and some who come do not seem highly motivated. A meeting of such a group may appear to be solely for the sake of arranging for more meetings. The objective seems to become that of filling meeting “spots” rather than planring an integrated program that truly contributes to the accomplishment of more important objectives.

Sometimes a maze of organization habits – reading minutes, conducting rituals, or carrying out a set order of business – crowd out any important objectives which the group might like to pursue. This can happen to any group. Focusing attention on definite group objectives and on activities designed to help accomplish those objectives will overcome such difficulties.

People continue to participate actively in groups only when it yields certain satisfactions. Satisfactions are based mainly on individual expectations and the fulfillment of those expectations. If there is to be general satisfaction among group members, there must be some agreement on the group’s purposes. If members have widely different expectations, it is difficult to see how any specific activities would provide motivation and satisfaction for all. If goals are not clearly defined, it is difficult, if not impossible, to measure progress or accomplishment. The importance of adequately stated goals and objectives in relation to the evaluation process will be discussed in more detail.

Clearly stated goals and objectives are an absolute necessity for effective decision making regarding activities or techniques which have the greatest potential to aid in effective group functioning and progress.

While clearly stated goals and objectives do not guarantee effective planning, it is difficult, if not impossible, to see how effective planning can be done without them.

Group Formation

Filed under: Group Objectives — admin @ 2:51 pm

Group Formation Group formation and participation, including individual motivations, blocks, and adjustments, is a complex process by which an aggregate of people with a wide variety of individual goals, values, skills, and blocks to group participation mold themselves into a productive group. Because each aggregate is unique it is nearly impossible to describe the total social process of group formation. But there are certain basic necessities common to all group development and certain essentials which must exist before a group will be formed.

First, it must be discovered – through communication – what the individual interests of the various persons are, and which of these individual interests are held in common by most of the potential group members. When people get together to form a group to achieve a certain goal or set of goals, it is assumed that they expect to get the active participation of those involved. If members are going to give continued effort to any group, they must feel that through such participation they will be able to satisfy at least those individual interests which are held in common and also that some of their personal needs will be satisfied incidentally and without conflict with others’ interests.

The minimum essentials of group formation are represented graphically in Figure 5.2. The left portion of the diagram illustrates individuals with different priorities of individual interests. If these individuals are to be formed into a group, common interests must be established. There, must emerge the belief that the individuals possess some: interests in common and that the group formed represents; the potential of fulfilling those interests.

In democratic groups, it is the responsibility of members to become aware of these individual variations and to make contributions which move the group to rational adjustments to frustrations.

Membership Renewal

With this rudimentary consideration of group formation and membership we can move on to a brief discussion of membership renewal. In a culture such as ours, with great vertical and horizontal mobility, there is apt to be frequent need to renew or enlarge membership. Some organizations have a built-in declining membership. The college fraternity loses members through graduation. The Junior Chamber of Commerce sets a maximum age limit for members. For such groups, renewal of membership is a constant need and requires a considerable expenditure of effort. Many communities sponsor organizations known as “newcomers clubs,” the principal purpose of which is to introduce recent arrivals to the group life of the community. In such a group, membership renewal becomes the principal goal. Even the most stable of groups are liable to find themselves with a membership declining, either in numbers or in interest. They must go about adding to the membership with an attitude quite similar to that called for in group formation.

Upgrading Membership

Another aspect of group membership is the continuing one of upgrading. There is usually a certain uniformity, or homogeneity, in group membership. People tend to congregate into groups made up of others with similar education, status, class, occupation, religion, likes, dislikes, etc. Exceptions will be noted, but this is a general rule. Even the leadership tends to come from the same level, for we are as suspicious of superiority as we are bored with inferiority. Within any group, however, there is still a wide spread in group skills, in resource potential, and in many of the other qualities which go to make up good group membership. Upgrading may mean the exploitation of this degree of heterogeneity, or it may mean going outside what may be considered the normal range of members to secure individuals with special ability.
Often groups underestimate the group affiliation interest and desires of people who have exceptional knowledge or skills. Many people with these special attributes would be interested in becoming “regular” group members or playing special roles in groups if only they understood the group’s goals and means and were asked to join.

Some groups do not attempt to upgrade their membership because consciously, or unconsciously, they don’t want people with greater knowledge, abilities, or skills in their group. They fear that these new members might upset the status structure. This point of view denies the possibility of the potential for individual and group growth from internal stimulation and higher group standards made possible by adding high caliber new members.

Resource Personnel

Related to upgrading group membership is the effective use of consultants, or resource personnel, by groups. Seldom does any group contain experts or specialists in all the fields they may wish to explore. Common sense suggests that liberal use be made of persons with special knowledge or skills rather than proceeding on a basis of pooled ignorance. It has already been suggested that upon occasion such specialized help may be integrated into the group. In many other cases it will obviously be impossible, and sometimes not even desirable.

The frequency and intelligence with which groups use specialists may be one evidence of maturity. Resource personnel are available in an ever-widening circle of specialties. Their talents may be general or limited, but a little effort and ingenuity can usually turn up the knowledge sought.

October 23, 2008

Blocks to Participation

Filed under: Group Evaluations — admin @ 3:47 pm

Multiple Group Membership There are many blocks to full participation in groups.

A potential member may not know of the existence of groups having goals and objectives similar to his own. He may know of a group and accept its goals and objectives, but disapprove of the means used to attain them. He may have a feeling of insecurity about groups, a concern as to whether or not the group will accept him. He may fear that he lacks the human relations skills to get along with the other group members or he may feel inferior to them for other reasons such as his status, educational background, or even his clothing.

A person may be hesitant to join a group because he is not sure of the groups’ expectations of its members. He may feel that the other group members are so much more skilled in human relations or know so much more about the subject under discussion that he will have to refrain from participating. There are many other blocks and frustrations. Many are operative at the conscious level in the individual, still others may be subconscious.

In order to become efficient group members, individuals should study themselves and try objectively to cope with their blocks and frustrations. A responsibility of all members in a mature democratic group is to help others to analyze themselves objectively so that they can overcome their blocks and frustrations and participate more effectively in the ongoing group process.

Adjustments to Blocks

There are many different ways to help adjust these blocks or wish frustrations, many of which are not at the rational, conscious level. Man thinks in terms of abstractions and tends to constantly organize his experiences with the universe around him. He therefore must have some rationale or mental escape for any failures in his attempts to attain goals within that experience world. The ways in which he does this are called adjustments.

Aggression – One common adjustment to frustration – the blocking of progress toward some desired goal – is aggression. When one’s ideas are not accepted or when he as a person is not accepted, he may strike back blindly. He may show his aggression by gestures, words, or even physical violence. He may feel or say: “Well, you people are not interested in good ideas;” or “Boy, what a snobbish person he is, he won’t even talk to me.” He may turn this aggression inward and condemn himself: “You stupid fool, why did you say that?”

Compensation – Sometimes an individual adjusts to wish frustration by this device. If he is frustrated in reaching a given goal, he may divert his energies into another field by substituting another goal. If as a group member he has difficulty in communicating in group discussion, he may refrain from comment during discussion but devote a tremendous amount of energy to the “leg work” in carrying out the actions decided upon by the group. In some cases this type of compensation-substitution is a rational recognition of one’s unique abilities. However, many times it is used as an excuse for not trying to improve understandings and skills to overcome this wish blockage.

Rationalization – Many adjust to wish frustration by the process of rationalization. If one finds it difficult to attain a goal, he may unconsciously explain the situation away by denying to himself that he ever wanted to attain it. Thus, when he was defeated for an office in an organization, he tells himself that after all, it is not an important office and he really didn’t have time to do a very good job even if he had been elected. If he has a frustrating experience leading a discussion, he may adjust by making the unconscious excuse that the group members really are not very good discussants and, besides, discussions never get any place anyway. Rationalization usually takes place at the unconscious level.

Identification – This adjustment may take the form of living through the lives of others by participating vicariously in their successful attainment rather than seeking satisfactions in unknown activities. Those who adjust through identification often imitate the behavior and mannerisms of the person with whom they identify themselves. In terms of this adjustment one may be able to understand the joy or sorrow of one person because of success or failure of another person with whom he identifies. Also, one may be able to understand why a given person seems satisfied with mediocre levels of attainment for himself – he really receives his rewards from the attainments of another. Other group ramifications of this adjustment can be seen by the reader.

Idealization – This form of adjustment is closely related to identification. It is the adjustment to such feelings as one’s own inadequacy by over-evaluating himself – his ability, attainment, importance. He mar also idealize other individuals and their attainments. Thus he may compensate for an unconscious feeling of inadequacy by trying to convince himself that he is really a good group member. An individual is idealizing when he assigns greater value to his contributions to the group than the group as a whole would assign to them. Idealization may be of one’s own behavior or of another person’s behavior. When an individual over-evaluates other’s behavior, he ceases to be objective about group function.

Displacement – This is the adjustment which takes place when an individual transfers the feelings he has for one person to another. It often accompanies idealization. If one person idealizes another and that individual does something of which the idealizer does not approve, he may blame someone else. Often displacement takes place because the individual doing the displacing finds it more convenient to express himself to one person than to another. A person may be angry at his boss but say nothing to him; instead he may go home in the evening and vent his spleen on his wife and children.

Projection – This adjustment to wish frustration is one wherein the individual transfers to another his own feelings of inadequacies or frustrations. If a person has been unsuccessful in his role as a discussion leader he may project the blame on the group for not playing their proper roles. Or if group member A has not expressed himself well to group member B, he may project his own inadequacy to B by accusing him of lacking an open mind.

Conversion – Conversion is the transfer of energy after or during a wish frustration into some physical symptom or complaint. In extreme cases individuals may actually develop the symptoms of a physical ailment in this adjustment to wish frustration. A person who may have wanted to do a good job as a meeting leader may actually become ill if the job doesn’t turn out the way he wanted it. All mothers are familiar with this adjustment as displayed by children; innumerable mothers have seen their youngsters develop stomach-aches on the day they were scheduled to have examinations at school. In many instances the symptoms will be very real.

Regression – The adjustment known as regression is a process of retreating from an existing complex situation to a simpler one. When an individual finds a situation too complex, he may revert in his behavior to a less mature approach in anticipation of being dealt with on this level. In its more socially acceptable forms, the individual using this form of adjustment audibly wishes for, or actually tries to create, a simpler situation. A commonly found example of this form in group situations is the oft-heard expression of individuals in growing groups that they wish the groups were smaller and more intimate. This results from the fact that most people feel more competent to communicate in primary group situations with people whom they know on a more intimate basis. Probably the most commonly observed form of this adjustment is that certain group members pout when they don’t get their own way – a regression to a childhood form of coping with this type of frustration. Negativism. This adjustment is a common one. It is the behavior pattern in which a frustrated individual responds to all subsequent alternatives in a negative way. Children frequently refuse to do anything if they can’t do what they wanted. “If I can’t pitch I won’t play.”

Fantasy - This adjustment involves the imagining of situations in which one’s goals are achieved when frustration takes place. Daydreaming is the common term applied to this form of adjustment.

Many reactions that one sees in people may at first be difficult to understand. They become more understandable when analyzed in the framework of wish frustration and adjustment to that frustration. The plea again is for rational analysis of self and one’s actions. One needs to predict the possible frustration of others and conduct oneself so these frustrations can be minimized for all. In a mature group, leaders may help group members to understand their frustrations and the adjustments they are making to those frustrations. It is within this framework that they will mature most rapidly as group members. Otherwise, the group may spend most of its time and energy in keeping members from being frustrated and have little time and energy left for productive decision making and action.

Most adjustments are complex, and it is difficult to spell out mutually exclusive definitions. It should be recognized that any occurrence may cause frustration for someone. Often because of conflicting or competitive interests, goal satisfaction to one individual means frustration to another.

It is of some interest to note that extremes of behavior as seen in excessive adjustment can be readily identified with the well-known forms of mental disease. For example, hysteria corresponds to excessive conversion, while the sociopath is an example of excessive aggression. One may recognize extreme regression in depressive psychosis and unlimited fantasy in the way the schizophrenic loses contact with reality. Opinion is divided as to whether these mental diseases are in actuality exaggerations of the frustration adjustments of normal persons or whether they have simply developed along similar patterns.

Adjustments which people make to frustrations are not necessarily good or bad. Because individuals live in an organized society in which certain freedoms to act without concern for others have been relinquished for the common good, it is inevitable that some wishes and desires will be blocked. In a democratic society, the minority position always involves frustration. Frustrations are an intrinsic and normal part of the interaction of human beings. The group member or group leader who recognizes this and attempts to create social interaction patterns within his group which will minimize frustrations will find that group morale will remain higher and the group will move more rapidly toward the achievement of its goals.

Group members need to recognize that there are both destructive and useful effects in the kinds of adjustments which one can make to goal frustrations. Adjustments such as rationalization can be used as a constant escape from the reality of the social situations in which one finds oneself. However, if this adjustment is used intelligently it provides an “escape” around the goal blockage which allows him to go on to do other constructive activities.

On the other extreme, such adjustments as regression or aggression, while they may give the individual immediate release from the tensions built up by the goal blockage, nearly always have adverse effects on group morale. When individuals or groups are blocked in the attainment of a goal, they may either change their attitudes and their goals, or strive to change the circumstances which caused the blockage in the first place. As members become more skilled at recognizing the factors which cause blockage or frustration and the kinds of adjustments made in these situations, they can choose rationally .to make those adjustments which require the least expenditure of time and emotional energy. This leads to greater individual motivation, greater personal satisfactions with the group and its activities and greater group productivity.

Reasons for Group Affiliation

Filed under: Group Productivity — admin @ 3:40 pm

Reasons for Group Affiliation In his quest to satisfy his needs and wants, man has found that many of them are best satisfied through group affiliation and action. If the members of various groups are asked why they joined, they will give many different answers. Some might have joined because membership in the group will enhance their status. Others joined because of a value placed on service – they wanted to help other people and feel this group gives them this opportunity. Another person may have joined a group because he feels he may make some business contacts that he feels in the end may make him some money. There are other kinds of personal gain motivations.

Some may have joined almost purely from tradition their mother or father was an active member and it was just expected that they would also be a member. Others joined because all their friends belong and being a member of the group is a way to be with their friends. A few joined because they are lonely people and they think they might make some more intimate contacts and perhaps make some friends. Others joined what they feel is a “different” group – they can escape from some of the restrictions and frustrations of everyday and other group life. Of course, many joined because of the specific activity of the group: politics, gardening, photography, great books, or whatever has high priority as an activity for them. Others joined because their boss or boss’s wife suggested that belonging to this group is “a good thing to do” if one wants to “get ahead.” In any group there may be a tremendous diversity of interests and motivations for belonging.

When one is aware of this diversity, it becomes easier to understand why certain groups have difficulties in agreeing upon goals and objectives and the methods which they will use to achieve them. It is recognized that it is impossible to know all there is to know about group members. However, if one has some understanding of them as individuals, what their basic drives and motivations are, and what needs they are trying to fulfill, one is in a better position to treat them as individuals, find areas of common agreement, find challenges that will motivate them, and better understand why they act as they do. Basic understanding of fellow group members is one of the first steps in any individual’s becoming a productive group member.

Since people feel that many of their basic desires are best satisfied through group activity, one might expect that everyone is interested in group activity and that groups are fulfilling their needs. It is not that simple. Many people do not belong to formal groups. Many members do not actively participate. Other groups do not really satisfy their members’ needs or fulfill their goal expectations, even though the members participate actively.

Motivations

Filed under: Group Productivity — admin @ 3:39 pm

Motivations There are many theories extant as to the motivations of men, and the authors are aware that these many explanations exist. They are acquainted with much more sophisticated explanations of human wants than the “four wishes” of W. I. Thomas, but for the purposes of this post they find the classification a useful one in pointing out the general lines along which motivations flow. It will be accepted that man, wherever he is found – in the jungles of Africa, in the Arctic or on Main Street, U.S.A. – has four basic desires which Thomas has pointed out. The four “wishes” are security, new experience, recognition, and response.

These obviously constitute an oversimplification and are not specific wishes, but rather a broad social-psychological classification of the various types of social desires of individuals. In the following descriptions of the wishes, it should be remembered that none exist in a pure form, but the combinations in various degree always exist.

Security - All wishes or desires stem from man’s ability to think, and the way he satisfies these wishes is based upon his basic value orientation. He may place a high value on security. If he does, most of the goals which he accepts will be those which he thinks will give him immediate or ultimate security.

The individual’s wish for security might be satisfied by temporal material things such as food, shelter, and clothing, and adequate reserves of wealth to secure these in the future. This wish might be satisfied by spiritual beliefs in the hereafter, and by the individual’s feeling that he had a chance of going to a desirable locale after death. Whether or not such beliefs could be grounded in reality is immaterial since when men consider situations to be real, they act as if they were.

Still others satisfy the security wish by being accepted into groups which they consider to be important to their well being. They find security in belonging. Security to many group members means a feeling that the group will behave in a regular, routine fashion. Such a member feels that if changes are made in group functioning, they will be brought about slowly, and he, as an individual, will not be thrust into a new situation rapidly and without warning. His security is relative to the degree of his feeling of acceptance by the group.

New Experience – This wish or motivation may be satisfied by seeking contacts with new people, seeking out or creating new social situations in which to become involved, learning and accepting new and different responsibilities, and learning to play new and different roles. A person highly motivated by this wish would jump at the opportunity to take on a difficult committee assignment or try a new group technique. A new and difficult social situation might well act as a challenge to this individual rather than create a feeling of insecurity or frustration.

Recognition – The wish for recognition is expressed in the desire of the individual to “be somebody” in the eyes of his fellows. This wish is so well expressed in our culture and so generally understood that little discussion is necessary. Each individual feels the need to be considered important by his fellow men. This need arises, as was pointed out earlier, because man with his unique thinking ability conceptualizes himself in relation to others and he has mental images of what others think of him. Since we live in a highly competitive culture, people vie for status as well as wealth. Wealth may become simply a device for providing status and recognition. Being known as an important person, getting one’s name in the paper, working on a job which has high prestige, and other ways too obvious to mention are all ways of satisfying the need for recognition.

In the ideal formal democratic group, where ideas are accepted on their merit, individuals are ascribed status on the basis of their ability to create ideas rather than on other bases. Thus the pure democratic group provides a totally different framework within which individuals may achieve status or recognition.

Response – The wish for response is the desire to be wanted; the feeling that others enjoy one’s association and wish to continue it. This wish differs from the wish for recognition in that the individual is not as concerned about his prestige and recognition as a matter of public knowledge and public record. As a minimum for response satisfaction, the reference groups which the individual considers significant must accept him as a person and indicate their satisfaction with his being one of them. An individual satisfies his need for response by gaining acceptance with a small number of individuals, his peers, who know him on a primary face-to-face basis and accept him as a person for what he is, including his foibles.

In any society one can find those who satisfy their need for response by accepting the menial tasks which need to be performed, such as washing dishes, and get satisfaction from being needed and from associating with others while performing these tasks. A person satisfying this need for response is satisfied by the fact that others recognize him as a personality and empathize with him, understand him, and accept him. He revels in being liked by others. Even those who chiefly value status also value the response of those about them.

The social interactions related to satisfaction of need for response are usually much more intimate than those of recognition. In the desire for response, people may seek relationships such as love, affection, respect, a feeling of being wanted, and belonging with and to other people. The need for response is often satisfied by a feeling of acceptance as a total person. An individual likes to feel that others like to have him around. He likes to feel that others confide in him and seek his help and advice. He interacts with others in solving their and his little personal problems. Under these circumstances he is satisfying his need for response.

Individuals make different choices regarding the extent to which they attempt to satisfy these various wishes. The choices are usually based on the personal values arrived at through interpretations of past experiences in situations which involved earlier efforts to satisfy these wishes.

All individuals experience all of these wishes in varying degrees of intensity. Some people have a stronger desire for satisfaction of one or of another of these wishes. The need for satisfaction of this wish continuously assumes precedence over others in such a person.

If one accepts the proposition that the actions of human beings are oriented around the satisfaction of these wishes, one is led to ask why men the world over attempt to satisfy these wishes in so many different ways. The over-simplified answer to this is that the culture in which men find themselves sets the boundaries within which these wishes must be satisfied, and the unique experiences of each individual determines the emphasis he will place on the satisfaction of each wish.

These basic wishes may be fulfilled in many different ways. In many instances, motivations arising from them can contribute to group productivity. In other cases they may hinder group productivity. The wish for recognition may be fulfilled by doing a given job well. For this, recognition is given by fellow members. However, if an individual cannot get this kind of positive recognition from the group, he may turn to unacceptable behavior to gain attention. Thus the frustrated group member may turn to being a “cut-up” or playboy, a blocker, or a discussion monopolizer.

The group member that feels thwarted at gaining new experience within the acceptable group value system and action framework may fulfill his wish by inventing new techniques to slow up or disrupt group operation. This may give release to his desire for new experience. In some instances, when an individual is not having new experiences, he drops out of the group.

The individual who feels he is not receiving the proper response from group members may find one or two other persons who share his attitude. They may form a tightknit clique and turn their interests and actions toward themselves, rather than the group and its activities.

When group members and leaders recognize that the need for individual satisfactions exist in their groups, methods can be used which will move the group toward its goals and at the same time bring satisfaction to individuals.

Group productivity is greatest in those groups where techniques are used which simultaneously further the attainment of the group goals and bring fulfillment of the wishes of individual members.

Although group members may have been born and reared in the same community, they may join a group for many different reasons; they are trying to satisfy various personal desires and needs. Out of these different value orientations, different felt needs and different desires for goal fulfillment, they must find common interests, motivations, patterns of interaction, and personal relations that will enable them to move effectively toward wish satisfaction and goal fulfillment within the group structure.

Values, the Basis of Action

Filed under: Group Action — admin @ 3:34 pm

Values the Basis of Action The ends or goals of any man’s actions and the actions themselves are not randomly determined. There is a consistency in them. The framework which provides this consistency is what is known as his value orientation or, very loosely, his philosophy of life.

A man develops this value system in various ways. Regardless of how it develops, it is essentially a mental categorization of ends and means which are evaluated as acceptable or unacceptable in varying degrees.

Members of the same culture and the same groups tend to have similar value systems but the unique experiences of all individuals result in many differences in emphasis which they place on any given end or means. Group action takes place when ends sought are commonly espoused by members and are of relative importance to them. The means used, as well as the ends, must be acceptable to the group as a whole.

Some values held by an individual are instilled in his thought patterns by the culture; they are accepted from the value systems of others. Examples of this are found everywhere. Children receive certain stimuli and in the process of responding, the parent assigns good or bad to alternative response choices. One of the reasons why others have such a disproportionately large influence on the younger child is that the young child is constantly being exposed to completely new stimuli and lacks the experiences from which to make his own interpretations. He is much more susceptible to acceptance of the interpretations of others. In the presence of a parent, each new stimulus is followed immediately by another stimulus, i.e., the suggestion of the parent as to the proper response.

As the individual becomes more experienced and has been exposed to many more stimuli toward which he has responded, he builds up a reservoir of alternatives in his memory. He builds a system of values based upon his own judgments of the relative good and bad of his past experiences. These experiences include the evaluations of others. The degree to which an individual accepts value judgments of others as his own ranges all the way from complete uncritical acceptance of another’s evaluation to complete rejection of outside evaluations. The individual more readily accepts the evaluations of others whom he knows well and respects and with whose values he agrees. When we say that one individual knows another, we’re basically saying that he is relatively aware of the other’s past experiences, his ends and objectives, and accepted techniques for attaining his goals.

It is recognized that because of inherent qualities, individuals have varying abilities to act in given mental and physical ways. This difference in inherited capabilities is only one factor in accounting for differences in human behavior. The experience of the individual is also of great importance in determining how he responds in any situation. The relative importance of these two types of influence in determining individual behavior cannot be stated precisely.

We accumulate experience from the many people with whom we have contact, the groups to which we belong, the reading we do, and from all the stimuli we receive and retain. Each of us has had experiences that are different unique experiences that helped create our individuality.

It has been pointed out that man has values concerning both the goals he wants to attain and the means that are acceptable to him in that goal attainment. Because of our different cultural backgrounds, the different group experiences that we have had, and the unique experiences in which each of us has participated, it is relatively easy to see why there are so many differences among us as individuals. We may have different values – different things are acceptable and important to us. Even if we believe in basically the same things, we may attach varying importance to individual items within our accepted pattern of values. Even if we believe the same basic goals are important, we may not agree on the best, most enjoyable, or even acceptable method or means to attain a given goal.

It is within this broad framework of values with regard to the ends or objectives we want to attain and the acceptable means to attain those ends that we begin to seek answers as to what makes people act – what motivates them – what makes them “tick.” Why does one person seem to drag his feet at every new suggestion? Why does another always seem to have to be the center of group activity? Why is being recognized as a leader so important to another?

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